* Scarcity: Economists study situations where needs or wants exceed means. Therefore, people have to make choices.
* Rationality is assumed to guide people's choices or decisions. They systematically gauge all pros (benefit or "utility") and cons ("cost") of all alternatives or options they are facing when deciding.
* Preferences: People are equipped with fixed and given preferences that allow them to assign utilities to all options, and to choose the option that maximizes (net) utility.
* Restrictions: People face constrains that they cannot change themselves, and thus have to take as given (such as budgets, input cost etc.). Maximization is always constriaint by restrictions.
Combining the first four points makes up for the "rational choice approach" of Neoclassical economics.
* Opportunity Cost is induced by scarcity, and by the need to make choices. All choices always involve opportunity cost because deciding in favor of one option always means deciding against some other option(s). There are two main aspects of opportunity cost: 1) Utility maximizing choices induce opportunity cost to be minimal (static aspect). 2) Choices may be revised when opportunity cost rises (dynamic aspect).
* The Economic Principle is the application of rationality to situations of scarcity: Minimize cost with regard to a given goal (e.g., level of utility) OR maximize utility for a given level of cost or input. Hence the "economic principle" frames situations as a minimizing or a maximizing problem, and allows to assess efficiency. Do not mix the two formulations! Applying the principle avoids wasting valuable resources.
* Efficiency of activities, rules, transactions or distributions is a basic theme in economic analysis. Efficiency is most often assessed either in terms of the economic principle (minimize cost or maximize utility) or the Pareto criterion (with regard to transactions and distributions).
* Marginal Analysis is a typical way for economists to look at problems. They analyze decisions in terms of marginal benefits and marginal costs. Marginal thinking is rather uncommon among non-economists, however.
* Equilibrium is a fundamental notion in economic analysis. Basic economic models deal with the comparison of two (or possibly more) equilibria (comparative statics). Economist think in terms of equilibria, which are situations where no one has an incentive to change his or her behavior. The Nash equilibrium is the most fundamental formulation of the concept of equilibrium as used in economics.
* Game Theory is an approach to study situations of interdependence where people have incentives to think and behave strategically.
Saturday, March 6, 2010
Mankiw's "Ten Principles of Economics"
How People Make Decisions
* People Face Tradeoffs. To get one thing, you have to give up something else. Making decisions requires trading off one goal against another.
* The Cost of Something is What You Give Up to Get It. Decision-makers have to consider both the obvious and implicit costs of their actions.
* Rational People Think at the Margin. A rational decision-maker takes action if and only if the marginal benefit of the action exceeds the marginal cost.
* People Respond to Incentives. Behavior changes when costs or benefits change.
How the Economy Works as A Whole
* Trade Can Make Everyone Better Off. Trade allows each person to specialize in the activities he or she does best. By trading with others, people can buy a greater variety of goods or services.
* Markets Are Usually a Good Way to Organize Economic Activity. Households and firms that interact in market economies act as if they are guided by an "invisible hand" that leads the market to allocate resources efficiently. The opposite of this is economic activity that is organized by a central planner within the government.
* Governments Can Sometimes Improve Market Outcomes. When a market fails to allocate resources efficiently, the government can change the outcome through public policy. Examples are regulations against monopolies and pollution.
* People Face Tradeoffs. To get one thing, you have to give up something else. Making decisions requires trading off one goal against another.
* The Cost of Something is What You Give Up to Get It. Decision-makers have to consider both the obvious and implicit costs of their actions.
* Rational People Think at the Margin. A rational decision-maker takes action if and only if the marginal benefit of the action exceeds the marginal cost.
* People Respond to Incentives. Behavior changes when costs or benefits change.
How the Economy Works as A Whole
* Trade Can Make Everyone Better Off. Trade allows each person to specialize in the activities he or she does best. By trading with others, people can buy a greater variety of goods or services.
* Markets Are Usually a Good Way to Organize Economic Activity. Households and firms that interact in market economies act as if they are guided by an "invisible hand" that leads the market to allocate resources efficiently. The opposite of this is economic activity that is organized by a central planner within the government.
* Governments Can Sometimes Improve Market Outcomes. When a market fails to allocate resources efficiently, the government can change the outcome through public policy. Examples are regulations against monopolies and pollution.
Friday, March 5, 2010
What is the ROM and in which sizes
ROM (Read Only Memory)
Read Only Memory (ROM) is computer memory that can permanently store data and applications within it. There are various types of ROM with names like EPROM (Erasable ROM) or EEPROM (Electrically Erasable ROM).
Unlike RAM, when a computer is powered down, the contents of the ROM are not lost. EPROM or EEPROM can have their contents rewritten by a special operation. This is called 'Flashing the EPROM' a term that came about because ultra violet light is used to clear the contents of the EPROM.
Size of ROM available
Macintosh Model | ROM Size |
Macintosh 128 | 64K |
Macintosh 512K | 64K |
Macintosh 512Ke | 128K |
Macintosh Plus | 128K |
Macintosh SE (both 800K & FDHD) | 256K |
Macintosh Classic (4-chip and 2-chip) | 512K |
Macintosh SE/30 | 256K |
Macintosh Classic II | 512K |
Macintosh Color Classic | 1024K |
Macintosh II Models | ROM Size |
Macintosh II | 256K |
Macintosh IIx | 256K |
Macintosh IIcx | 256K |
Macintosh IIci | 512K |
Macintosh IIfx | 512K |
Macintosh IIsi | 512K |
Macintosh IIvi/IIvx | 1024K |
Macintosh LC Models | |
Macintosh LC | |
Macintosh LC II | 512K |
Macintosh LC III | 1024K |
Macintosh LC 475 | 1024K |
Macintosh LC 520/550 | 1024K |
Macintosh LC 575 | 1024K |
Macintosh LC 580 | 1024K |
Macintosh LC 630 | 1024K |
Macintosh TV | 1024K |
Macintosh Performa Models | |
Macintosh Performa 200 | 512K |
Macintosh Performa 400/405/410/430 | 512K |
Macintosh Performa 450/460/466/467 | 1024K |
Macintosh Performa 475/476 | 1024K |
Macintosh Performa 550/560 | 1024K |
Macintosh Performa 575/577/578 | 1024K |
Macintosh Performa 580 | 1024K |
Macintosh Performa 600 | 1024K |
Macintosh Performa 630/631/635/636/637/638/640 | 1024K |
Macintosh Performa 5200/5210/5215/5220 | 4096K |
Macintosh Performa 5260 | 4096K |
Macintosh Performa 5300 | 4096K |
Macintosh Performa 6100 Series | 4096K |
Macintosh Performa 62xx | 4096K |
Macintosh Performa 6300 | 4096K |
Macintosh Performa 6320 | 4096K |
Macintosh Performa 6400 series | 4096K |
Macintosh Performa 6360 | 4096K |
Macintosh Performa 6290 | 4096K |
Macintosh Quadra Models | |
Macintosh Quadra 605 | 1024K |
Macintosh Centris/Quadra 610 | 1024K |
Macintosh Quadra 630 | 1024K |
Macintosh Centris/Quadra 650 | 1024K |
Macintosh Quadra 700 | 1024K |
Macintosh Quadra 800 | 1024K |
Macintosh Quadra 900 | 1024K |
Macintosh Quadra 950 | 1024K |
Macintosh Centris/Quadra 660AV | 1024K |
Macintosh Quadra 840AV | 2048K |
Apple Workgroup Servers | |
Apple Workgroup Server 60 | 1024K |
Apple Workgroup Server 80 | 1024K |
Apple Workgroup Server 90 | 1024K |
Apple Workgroup Server 95 | 1024K |
Apple Workgroup Server 6150 | 4096K |
Apple Workgroup Server 8150 | 4096K |
Apple Workgroup Server 9150 | 4096K |
Apple Workgroup Server 7250 | 4096K |
Apple Workgroup Server 8550 | 4096K |
Power Macintosh Models | |
Power Macintosh 4400 series | 4096K |
Power Macintosh 5200/75 LC | 4096K |
Power Macintosh 5260/100 | 4096K |
Power Macintosh 5300/100 LC | 4096K |
Power Macintosh 5400 series | 4096K |
Power Macintosh 5500 series | 4096K |
Power Macintosh 6400 series | 4096K |
Power Macintosh 6500 series | 4096K |
Power Macintosh 6100 series | 4096K |
Power Macintosh 7100 series | 4096K |
Power Macintosh 7200 series | 4096K |
Power Macintosh 7300 series | 4096K |
Power Macintosh 7500/100 | 4096K |
Power Macintosh 7600 series | 4096K |
Power Macintosh 8100 series | 4096K |
Power Macintosh 8500 series | 4096K |
Power Macintosh 8600 series | 4096K |
Power Macintosh 9500 series | 4096K |
Power Macintosh 9600 series | 4096K |
Power Macintosh G3 | 4096K |
Power Macintosh G3 (Blue and White) | 1024K |
Macintosh PowerBook Models | |
Macintosh Portable | 256K |
Macintosh Backlit Portable | 256K |
PowerBook 100 | 256K |
PowerBook 140 | 1024K |
PowerBook 145 | 1024K |
PowerBook 150 | 1024K |
PowerBook 160 | 1024K |
PowerBook 165c | 1024K |
PowerBook 170 | 1024K |
PowerBook 180/180c | 1024K |
PowerBook Duo 210 | 1024K |
PowerBook Duo 230 | 1024K |
PowerBook Duo 250 | 1024K |
PowerBook Duo 270c | 1024K |
PowerBook Duo 280/280c | 1024K |
PowerBook 520/520c | 2048K |
PowerBook 540/540c | 2048K |
PowerBook 1400 | 1024K |
PowerBook Duo 2300 series | 4096K |
PowerBook 5300 series | 4096K |
Maximum size of ROM available
8 MB Flash EEPROM with Intel Platform Innovation Framework for EFI Plug and Play.
What is the reason for keeping ROM size smaller then RAM size?
Basically ROM has fixed data that is used in computer startup. After that there is no more use of it. It doesn’t have to store temporary data and startup information is very low in size.
Thursday, March 4, 2010
Bomb Blasts in Pakistan, 2010
| Date | Place | Killed | Injured | |
| 1 | January 1 | Lakki Marwat / NWFP | 90 | 60 |
| 2 | January 1 | Salarzai / FATA | 6 | 0 |
| 3 | January 1 | Sturikhel / FATA | 0 | 0 |
| 4 | January 1 | Zargari / NWFP | 2 | 0 |
| 5 | January 3 | Salarzai / FATA | 2 | 4 |
| 6 | January 3 | Jandola sector / FATA | 1 | 5 |
| 7 | January 3 | Hangu / NWFP | 4 | 0 |
| 8 | January 3 | Rawalpindi / Punjab | 2 | 1 |
| 9 | January 5 | Stori Khel / FATA | 0 | 0 |
| 10 | January 5 | Nawagai / FATA | 0 | 0 |
| 11 | January 6 | Jabarzai / FATA | 0 | 2 |
| 12 | January 7 | Darr (Kurram) / FATA | 5 | 0 |
| 13 | January 8 | Khyber Agency / FATA | 8 | 11 |
| 14 | January 8 | Baldia / Sindh | 6 | 1 |
| 15 | January 8 | Peshawar / NWFP | 1 | 6 |
| 16 | January 9 | Peshawar / NWFP | 0 | 8 |
| 17 | January 10 | Khuzdar / Balochistan | 0 | 1 |
| 18 | January 10 | Peshawar / NWFP | 0 | 0 |
| 19 | January 13 | Tank / NWFP | 1 | 6 |
| 20 | January 17 | Bajaour Agency/ FATA | 0 | 0 |
| 21 | January 18 | Khyber Agency/FATA | 0 | 0 |
| 22 | January 18 | Masozai/FATA | 0 | 0 |
| 23 | January 18 | Khuzdar/ Balochistan | 0 | 0 |
| 24 | January 19 | Jandola sector/FATA | 1 | 0 |
| 25 | January 20 | Bajaur Agency/FATA | 0 | 0 |
| 26 | January 21 | Bajaur Agency/FATA | 3 | 0 |
| 27 | January 22 | Bajaur Agency/FATA | 1 | 23 |
| 28 | January 22 | Hub/Balochistan | 0 | 5 |
| 29 | January 23 | Gomal/NWFP | 4 | 0 |
| 30 | January 24 | Khyber Agency/FATA | 1 | 1 |
| 31 | January 24 | Peshawar/NWFP | 0 | 0 |
| 32 | January 25 | Panjgur/ Balochistan | 1 | 10 |
| 33 | January 26 | Jaffarabad/Balochistan | 0 | 7 |
| 34 | January 27 | Dir/NWFP | 3 | 0 |
| 35 | January 28 | Jaffarabad/Balochistan | 2 | 20 |
| 36 | January 28 | Peshawar/NWFP | 0 | 0 |
| 37 | January 30 | Bajaur/FATA | 17 | 20 |
| 38 | January 31 | Bannu/NWFP | 0 | 0 |
| 39 | February 1 | Chashma / FATA | 2 | 2 |
| 40 | February 1 | Chamkani / Peshawar | 0 | 0 |
| 41 | February 2 | Lakhkar Killay / FATA | 2 | 2 |
| 42 | February 3 | Lower Dir / NWFP | 9 | 115 |
| 43 | February 4 | Nala / FATA | 0 | 2 |
| 44 | February 5 | Karachi / Sindh | 33 | 100 |
| 45 | February 6 | Huwaid / NWFP | 0 | 0 |
| 46 | February 6 | Quetta / Balochistan | 0 | 10 |
| 47 | February 8 | Torkham / FATA | 0 | 0 |
| 48 | February 9 | Gahi Khan Chowk / Balochistan | 0 | 4 |
| 49 | February 10 | Wazir Dhand / FATA | 17 | 10 |
| 50 | February 10 | Hangu / NWFP | 0 | 2 |
| 51 | February 11 | Bannu / NWFP | 15 | 24 |
| 52 | February 11 | Miramshah / FATA | 0 | 4 |
| 53 | February 13 | Qamardin / FATA | 0 | 0 |
| 54 | February 14 | Charmang / FATA | 3 | 0 |
| 55 | February 14 | Dadu / Sindh | 3 | 16 |
| 56 | February 14 | Quetta / Balochistan | 0 | 0 |
| 57 | February 15 | Lakaro / FATA | 0 | 0 |
| 58 | February 16 | Rehman Kewal Road / Balochistan | 0 | 0 |
| 59 | February 18 | Akakhel / FATA | 30 | 110 |
| 60 | February 18 | Baghbana / Balochistan | 0 | 1 |
| 61 | February 20 | Mansehra / NWFP | 1 | 0 |
| 62 | February 20 | Balakot / NWFP | 2 | 3 |
| 63 | February 21 | Mohmand Agency / FATA | 0 | 0 |
